Definite and indefinite articles

Use: 
1) Use a before a singular noun.
   I've got a brother and a sister.
Use an if the noun begins with a vowel.
   I've got an aunt in Texas.

2) Use plural nouns or uncountable nouns to talk about things in general. Don't use an article here.

I like cats.
Dolphins are very intelligent.
Crime is increasing.

3) Use the to talk about one particular thing, or a particular group of things.
Books are interesting. The book on the table is interesting.
Children are noisy. The children in this class are noisy.

4) Use a to introduce a new thing or person. Use the when you already know this person or thing.
There is a restaurant near my house. The restaurant serves good food.

5) Use the when there is only one of these things.
    The moon is very big tonight.
My dad is the only doctor in our village.
Joe is the best student in the class. 

6) Use the when there are many things, but it is clear which one you mean.
   Let's go to the pub! We need to go to the supermarket. 

7) Most 'general' nouns do not use an article.
Life is not the same as it used to be NOT: The life…

Health is important to everyone. NOT: The health…

We're worried about pollution. NOT: The pollution…

But some general nouns use the:

the environment People are increasingly worried about the environment. 
the weather What's the weather like today? 
the countryside I love walking in the countryside.
the sea / ocean I'd love to live near the sea. 
the radio There's an interesting programme on the radio. 
the theatre / cinema We went to the theatre last night. 
the economy The economy is affecting everyone. 

Common mistakes:

1) Some students use the when they talk about things in general.
I love the romantic films! => I love romantic films!

2) Some students use singular nouns without a or the.
I want book about the weather. => I want a book about the weather.

3) Some students use the when they talk about things in general.
I want the book about the weather. => I want a book about the weather.

will / be going to for prediction

Use:

Both be going to and will can be used to predict future events. In many cases they can be used interchangeably. 
Experts believe that the recession will continue.
Experts believe that the recession is going to continue.

However, in some cases they are used differently:

• Use going to when there is evidence about what is going to happen.

Look at the time! We’re going to be late!

• Use will / won’t when guessing about the future.

I bet Robin will be late again.

• Will is often used with phrases such as I think…, I expect…, I don’t think…, I bet… , I’m sure…, I doubt if/that…  when making predictions

• It is more common to use I don’t think + will, not I think + won’t

I think it won’t rain => I don’t think it will rain

Form:

be going to

Positive

I	am / ‘m	going to	verb (infinitive form)
you / we / they	are / ‘re
he / she / it	is / ‘s

Negative

I	‘m not	going  to	verb (infinitive form)
you	aren’t    OR   ‘re not
he / she / it	isn’t      OR     ‘s not

Questions

Am	I	going  to	verb (infinitive form) ?
Are	you / we / they
Is	he / she / it

Short Answers

Yes,	I am.	No,	I’m not.
	you / we / they are.		you / we / they    ‘re not / aren’t
	he / she / it is.		he / she / it ‘s not / isn’t

will

Positive / Negative

I / You / He / She / It  / We / They	will	verb (infinitive form).
	won’t

Will

I / you / he / she / it  / we / they /

verb (infinitive form)?

Defining Relative Clauses

Use:       

Use defining relative clauses to give information about a noun in a sentence. The listener or reader NEEDS this information to understand the sentence.

A doctor is a person who cures sick people.
The girl who sits next to me at work has a bag just like yours.

Form:

• Use who to give more information about a person.

An architect is a person who designs buildings.

• Use which or that to give more information about a thing.

A corkscrew is a thing which you use to open bottles.
The book that you gave me for my birthday is really interesting.

• Use where to give more information about a place.

That’s the place where we got married.
The town where my uncle lives is a few miles from here.

• Because non-defining relative clauses give essential information, no commas (,) are needed.
• If the noun which the relative clause describes (usually at the beginning of the sentence) is the OBJECT of the sentence, you can delete which, that or who.

The man who is wearing the blue suit is my brother.
The man is the subject of the sentence. You cannot delete who.

The man (who) George is talking to is my brother.
George is the subject of the sentence. 
The man is the object of the sentence. 
(The sentence can be rewritten: George is talking to a man. The man is my brother). So you can delete who.

The book you lent me is really good. 
You is the subject of the sentence. 
The book is the object of the sentence. 
(The sentence can be rewritten: You lent me a book. The book is really good. Which / that is not necessary.)

The book which is on the table is really good.
The book is the subject of the sentence. (The sentence can be rewritten: The book is on the table. It’s really good. Which / that is necessary.)

Mixed Conditionals

Use:       

Mixed conditional sentences combine two different conditional patterns. 
Several patterns can be used:

• mixed first conditional sentences

First conditional sentences can use a variety of modal verbs.
If + present simple, can / may / might / will / should + verb (infinitive)
If you give me some money, I can buy some milk.
If I finish my homework, may I go out with my friends?
If you switch the photocopier off and on again, it should work.

First conditional sentences can also use going to, as well as will.
If + present simple, going to + verb (infinitive)
If you don’t get ready soon, we’re going to be late!

The present continuous and going to can also appear in the If clause
If you’re going to the shop, can you buy me some cola?
If you’re going to pay him, make sure you get a receipt.

The present perfect may also appear in the If clause.
If you’ve finished your work, you can go home.

• mixed third / second conditional

This combination describes an imagined event in the past and the present result. 
If + past perfect, would + verb (infinitive)
If he'd taken the medicine, he wouldn't still be sick.
He wouldn’t still be sick if he’d taken the medicine.

• mixed second / third conditional

This combination describes a situation which is never true, and the past consequence of this situation.
If + past simple, would have + verb (infinitive)
If you were better at speaking in public, the presentation would have been more successful.
The presentation would have been more successful if you were better at speaking in public.

Possessive ‘s

Use:

Possessive adjectives after a name and before a noun.
They tell you who owns something.
This is John’s coat. 
Is this Tina’s bag?

Don’t use ‘s after things. 
I clean the garden’s pond every week. =>           I clean the pond in the garden every week.
What’s the book’s name?                           =>           What’s the name of the book? 

You can usually use ‘s after organisations and groups of people.
It’s the government’s decision.   OR          It’s the decision of the government. 
Tom is the company’s new  director.        OR          Tom is the new director of the company.

You can use ‘s after time expressions.
What time is tomorrow’s meeting?
  
You can sometimes use ‘s after countries and cities.
India’s population is rising.
But you cannot do this if it refers to a person.
I met London’s mayor last week.              =>           I met the mayor of London last week.
England’s Queen is well-known. =>           The Queen of England is well-known.

Form:

• To make the possessive form, add ’s to the end of the name.

Is that Jack’s bag?

• With two names, only add ‘s to the second name.

That’s Jane and Harry’s house.                NOT        That’s Jane’s and Harry’s house.

• If something belongs to two or more people, put the apostrophe(‘) after the plural s. Do not write a second s.

My parents’ house is really big. NOT        My parents’s house is really big.

However, if the plural noun is irregular, write the apostrophe (‘) before the S.
The children’s party was great. NOT        The childrens’ party was great. 

Demonstrative adjectives

Use:

This:                       Use this to talk about something which is near you.
                                                How much is this bag?

These:                  Use these to talk about two or more things which are nearyou.                                                
                                                Are these your keys?

That:                      Use that to talk about one thing which is far from you.
                                                Is that your house?

Those:                  Use those to talk about two or more things which are far from you.
                                                Who are those children over there?
                                                
Use This, That, These and Those:

• Before the verb be.

                This is my sister / Those are my children.

• Before a noun:

                That cake looks delicious! These bags are expensive!

Make questions this way:
                Is this / that your sister?               
                Are these / those your children?

You can contract is after that. 
                That is my dad.                                 =>           That’s my dad.
But do not contract is after this.
                This’s my dad.                                 =>           This is my dad.
Do not contract are after These / Those.
                
Common mistakes
Always use a verb in sentences with this, that, these and those.
This lovely bag.                                                =>           This is a lovely bag / This bag is lovely.

Simple adjectives
Use:
Simple adjectives are describing words.

• They can go before nouns.

                That’s a nice car.

• They can also follow the verbs be, look, feel, smell, sound and taste.

This food looks nice.  It smells delicious! The cake is lovely!

Can and could, will and would

Can and could are used in a variety of different ways for different purposes. We can use them to talk about ability and possibility, to make requests and to ask for permission.

Can and could: to express ability

Here the distinction of can for present scenarios and could for past situations are preserved:

He could read by the time he was four years old and now he can speak six languages fluently.

I couldn't find my Tom Jones CD when I was looking for it the other day, but now I can see that you have it.

 Can and could / will and would: to make requests

When making requests, can and could are both used to refer to present and future situations. When we are asking something of others, will and would are also commonly used alternatives. Compare the following:

Could I have another cup of tea, please?

Can I have some more tea, please?

Could you pick Lauren up from school for me this afternoon, please?

Can you pick up Lauren from school for this afternoon, please?

Would you collect Lauren from school for me this afternoon, please?

Will you fetch Lauren from school for me this afternoon, please?

Note from the above examples that could and would sound marginally more polite than can and will.

Note that if we are talking about ability to do something, rather than making a request, it will be necessary to use will be able to talk about future ability:

Will you be able to pick Lauren up from school this afternoon by any chance?

Note also that if we want to sound particularly polite when making a request of others, we can use the would you mind + verb-ing construction:

Would you mind picking Lauren up from school? ~ No, I don’t mind. It’s no trouble.

We can also use will to express the speaker’s willingness or intention to do things:

We haven’t got any paper for the photocopier. ~ I’ll get some for you.

Can you lend me fifty pounds for the weekend? I’ll pay you back on Monday.

Can and could: to ask for and give permission

Can is more commonly used than could in these contexts. May is a further alternative:

Can / May I help you with that? ~ Yes, you can.

Can / May I carry that for you? ~ Yes, you may.

Can I enter the room while the recording is in progress? ~ No, you may not.

Can I listen to it afterwards? ~ No, you can’t.

Note in the example above that we cannot use couldn’t when refusing permission.

Reported speech

In reported speech, would and could or would be able are used after reporting verbs in the past tense where will and can are used in direct speech. This is because there is a difference in time, place and speaker:

I’ll tell Mary about the meeting you’ve arranged for next Saturday.

He said he would tell Mary about the meeting tonight, but she’s not here yet.

I can look after Jenny if you’re busy.

He said he would be able to look after Jenny if I was busy.

However, would and could do not change in reported speech, if they are already present in direct speech:

It would be great if you could come to Manchester too.

He thought it would be great if we could go to Manchester as well.

Conditional structures and future situations

To talk about things that will probably not happen, we use a past tense in the if-clause and would, or sometimes could, in the main clause. Compare examples above and below:

If I knew where she was living now, I would tell you. But I don’t know.

To talk about things that may happen in the real future, we use a present tense in the if-clause and will, or sometimes can, in the main clause:

I’ll try and repair your bike tomorrow, if I have enough time.

I’ll try to mend your bike tomorrow, if I can find enough time.

Modals for Deduction

Use and Form:  

The following modals can be used to make guesses about a present situation.

must + infinitive
Use this when you make a guess and you are almost certain that your guess is correct.
‘Where’s John?’
‘He’s not here. He must be in the bathroom.’

may + infinitive 
might + infinitive 
could + infinitive 
Use this when you make a guess but you are only suggesting one possibility. You are not certain you are correct.
‘Where’s John?’
‘He’s not here. He may be in the bathroom, or he might be in the kitchen, or he could be outside.’

may not + infinitive 
might not + infinitive 
Use this when you make a guess about what is not true, but you are only suggesting one possibility. You are not certain you are correct.
‘Where’s John?’
‘He’s not here. He may not be at work today.’

NOTE: Do not use could not here.

can’t + infinitive
Use this when you make a guess about what is not true, and you are almost certain that your guess is correct.
‘Where’s John? Is he in the kitchen?’
‘No, he can’t be. I was in there a minute ago.’

NOTE: you cannot use: mustn’t + infinitive to make deductions about what is not true.
 

Common Mistakes:
1. Many students do not take the opportunity to use these structures when they can.
Maybe your bag is in the classroom.        =>           Your bag might be in the classroom.

How to use 'So, such, too, enough'

Too
Use:
Too means there is a lot of something. It shows a negative opinion. 
It’s too hot = It is very hot and I don’t like it.

Form:
You can use too before an adjective.
It’s too cold. My trousers are too small.

You can also use it before an adverb,
You walk too fast. James speaks too quietly.

Before a noun, use too much (uncountable nouns) or many (countable nouns).
I ate too much food.
I ate too many sandwiches.

You can also use too much after a verb.
I ate too much.
Paul drinks too much.

Enough
Use:
Enough means you have what you need.
We have enough food for everyone = everyone has some food.
We don’t have enough chairs for everyone = some people don’t have chairs.

Form:
Write enough before a noun.
We have enough chairs.

But write it after an adjective or verb.
Are you warm enough?  He’s qualified enough. She isn’t tall enough to be a model.

You don’t work hard enough. Are you sleeping enough?

Sentences with enough are sometimes followed by to + verb infinitive.
I’m not tall enough to reach the book.
I haven’t got enough money to buy that coat.

So
Use:
So means very.
It’s so hot!

Form:
So is generally used before an adjective or an adverb.
He’s so funny! He plays the piano so well!

However, in modern English, it is increasingly being used before nouns and verbs.
That dress is so last year! (= That dress is last year’s fashion)
I’m so going to shout at him when I see him! (so = really)

So can be used with a that clause, to show a result of the first clause.
I was so hot that I couldn’t sleep.


Such
Use:
Such also means very. Such is used before an adjective and noun.
They are such nice children.  

Form:
A / an, if necessary, go after such, not before.
That’s a such pretty dress. => That’s such a pretty dress!

Like So, Such can be used with a that clause, to show a result of the first clause.
I was such a nice day that we decided to go to the park.

Common mistakes

1) Some students use too with a positive meaning. But use so or very here
It’s too hot! I love the summer! => It’s so hot! I love the summer!

2) Some students write enough in the wrong place. 
Do we have sugar enough? => Do we have enough sugar?

3) Some students use so / such…that incorrectly. 
It was so hot that the sun was shining.
This sentence is not correct because ‘the sun was shining’ is not a direct result of ‘It was so hot’. The hot day did not cause the sun to shine.

Using WERE in the past subjunctive mood

Subjunctive is difficult even for most native English speakers, mainly because it’s not a tense; it’s a mood. Past, present, future—those are tenses. We use them to tell what happened at a certain point in time. Moods, however, tell how a speaker feels about those events.

Have you ever heard a sentence starting with “If I were you”? That’s subjunctive (past subjunctive, to be exact). And past subjunctive with the word were is what we are going to talk about today.

When to use subjunctive
Before you learn how to use it correctly, you have to know when to use it.
You would use subjunctive when you want to express wishes or desires.

Example: I wish you were here.

You would also use subjunctive to express that conditions are false or unlikely.

Example: If I were rich, I would buy a golden toilet.

Was = a common mistake
Because subjunctive is so confusing, it’s common to hear people say was when they should say were.

Have you heard sentences like this before:

It would be nice if she was on vacation.
If I was her, I would dump that loser.
If he was president, he would order Ice Cream Fridays.

In each of these sentences, was should be were. The first sentence expresses a desire (“It would be nice . . .”), and the second and third sentences express false or unlikely conditions.I can’t be her, so that is a false condition. Also he is unlikely to be president, so that is an unlikely condition.

Key words and phrases
One way to figure out if you should use were instead of was is to listen for key words and phrases. Here are some giveaways that you should use subjunctive and were:

I wish that . . .
It would be nice if . . .
I would like it if . . .
It would be wonderful if . . .
It would be super amazing and totally awesome if . . .

As you can see, the above phrases all express wishes and desires. That’s a big clue that you’re dealing with subjunctive.

Another clue is if there is an if/then construction:

If I were you, then I would eat a million donuts.
If I were her, then I would ride a tricycle.
If I were him, then I would be the best drag queen.

But—there won’t always be a then with this construction. Sometimes, it is just implied, as with this example:

If I were a cat, I would step on my owner’s keyboard to piss her off while she’s trying to work.

You can note, though, that the construction is essentially the same.

Remember . . . if you are expressing wishes or desires or conditions that are false or unlikely, use were instead of was.